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Sabtu, 09 Januari 2016

Chapter 2 Core Element of a Program – Introduction with Python


At the end of previous chapter we have learn how to choose among variety in programming languages. And we have preferred to use Python in this course. But keep in mind, this course is not about Python. We use python as a tools to present concept that related with computational problem solving and thinking. There are many excellent online resources in the internet, that describing almost every aspect of the language. Python features that we don't need for that purpose are not presented at all.
Since its introduction by Guido von Rossum in 1990, Python has undergone many changes. For the first decade of its life, Python was a little known and little used language. That changes with the arrival of Python 2.0 in 2000. In addition to incorporating a number of important improvements to the language its self, it marked a shift in evolutionary path of the language. A large number of people began developing libraries that interfaced seamlessly with Python, and continuing support and development of the python ecosystem became a community based activity. Python 3.0 was released at the end of 2008. This version of Python cleaned up many of the inconsistencies in the design of the various releases of Python 2 (often referred as Python 2.x). However, it was not backward compatible. That means that most programs written for earlier version of Python could not be run using implementation of Python 3.0.
The backward incompatibility presents a problem for this course. In our view, Python 3.0 is clearly superior to Python 2.x. However, at the time of this writing, some important Python libraries still do not work with Python 3. We will, therefore, use Python 2.7 (into which many of the most important features of Python 3 have been "back ported") throughout this course.“ -  (Guttag, 2013)
The Basic Element of a Program
A python program, sometimes called a script, is a sequence of definitions and commands are executed by the Python interpreter in something called the shell. Typically, a new shell is created whenever execution of a program begins. In most cases, a window is associated with the shell. -  (Guttag, 2013). To have a bettter understanding about a computer program, we have to look the basic element that build a every good program. And here it is:

2.1              Statement/command

Sometimes computer didn’t have to make an operation and just do a certain task, like printing something out, or take an input from an input device or from another program. A command is an instruction given by a user telling a computer to execute something, such a run a single program or a group of linked programs. Commands are generally issued by typing them in at the command line (i.e., the all-text display mode) and then pressing the ENTER key, (Command Definition, 2004)


2.2              Object

Object are the core things that Python programs manipulate. Every object has a type that defines the kinds of things that programs can do with objects of that type. (Guttag, 2013). Object have two characteristic, there are states and behavior. For Example, aircraft can have state (position, altitude, angle, engine thrust) and behavior (rolling, pull up, climbing, full throttle). (Walrath, 1996) (Walrath, What Is an Object?, 1996)
As what we learn before that every object has a type. These kind of types can be classified by two kind of object type, that are either scalar or non-scalar. Scalar objects are indivisible, cause of each only have a single value. Countrary with that, non-scalar objects that are divisible. For example, 17 as INT is a scalar object. In the other hand 17 as STR is a non-scalar object because of it consist of 1 (STR) and 7 (STR). These are some example of object types:

2.2.1                       Object scalar

*      int is used to represent integers. Literals of type int are written in the obvious way, e.g. 3 or 10002 or -4.
*      float is used to represent real numbers. Literals of Type float are also written in the obvious way, e.g. 3.0 or 3.37 or -27.72. (It is rarely used, but it is also possible to write literals of type float using scientific notation. For example, the literal 1.6E3 stands for 1.6×103,i.e., it is the same as 1600) You might wonder why this type is not called real. Within the computer, values of type float are store in the computer as Floating Point Numbers à this representation, which is used by all modern programming languages, has many advantages. However, under some situation it causes floating point arithmatic to behave in ways that are slightly different from real arithmatic. We will disscus this in Chapter 3.
*      bool is used to represent the Boolean value True and False.
*      none is a type with a single value. We will say more about this when we get to variables.

2.2.2                       Object non scalar

*      Str
*      Array


2.3              Operator

Operator is about what computer will do with the object. As we see in Chapter 1, each instruction build from operand and operator. So, all programming languages will provide a set of operator, which generate generally same behavior. Based on the expression, these operators can divide into 4 kind of types:

2.3.1                       Aritmatic operator

This type of operator is use when we want to calculate something. When we use aritmatic operator, we will get aritmatic expression
Operator
Description
Example
+
Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator
a + b will give 30
-
Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand
a - b will give -10
*
Multiplication - Multiplies values on either side of the operator
a * b will give 200
/
Division - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand
b / a will give 2
%
Modulus - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and returns remainder
b % a will give 0
**
Exponent - Performs exponential (power) calculation on operators
a**b will give 10 to the power 20
//
Floor Division - The division of operands where the result is the quotient in which the digits after the decimal point are removed.
9//2 is equal to 4
and
 9.0//2.0 is equal to 4.0

2.3.2                       Comparison operator

When we want to know about something and how it’s value or property, we usually compare it with an object that has a known value or object. It is like when we use ‘meter (m)’ as a base unit to evaluate length of a box.
* Remember to only compare two object that has the same type.
Operator
Description
Example
==
Checks if the value of two operands are equal or not, if yes then condition becomes true.
(a == b) is not true.
!=
Checks if the value of two operands are equal or not, if values are not equal then condition becomes true.
(a != b) is true.
<> 
Checks if the value of two operands are equal or not, if values are not equal then condition becomes true.
(a <> b) is true. This is similar to != operator.
> 
Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
(a > b) is not true.
< 
Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
(a < b) is true.
>=
Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
(a >= b) is not true.
<=
Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
(a <= b) is true.



2.3.3                       Logic operator

We use logic operator when we want computer to think like us. There only two main kind of logic operator that are:
-          AND operator
-          OR operator
With this operator we can tell computer to use all the expression that allowed and provide us a conclusion.


2.3.4                       Assignment operator

After make a conclusion, usually, we want to assign a computer object to do or get something. For this, we will use assignment operator as following:
Operator
Description
Example
=
Simple assignment operator, Assigns values from right side operands to left side operand
c = a + b will assigne value of a + b into c
+=
Add AND assignment operator, It adds right operand to the left operand and assign the result to left operand
c += a is equivalent to c = c + a
-=
Subtract AND assignment operator, It subtracts right operand from the left operand and assign the result to left operand
c -= a is equivalent to c = c - a
*=
Multiply AND assignment operator, It multiplies right operand with the left operand and assign the result to left operand
c *= a is equivalent to c = c * a
/=
Divide AND assignment operator, It divides left operand with the right operand and assign the result to left operand
c /= a is equivalent to c = c / a
%=
Modulus AND assignment operator, It takes modulus using two operands and assign the result to left operand
c %= a is equivalent to c = c % a
**=
Exponent AND assignment operator, Performs exponential (power) calculation on operators and assign value to the left operand
c **= a is equivalent to c = c ** a
//=
Floor Dividion and assigns a value, Performs floor division on operators and assign value to the left operand
c //= a is equivalent to c = c // a



2.4              Expression

In simple way expression is a type of instruction that we make when we combine object (operand) with operator, which denote an object of a type. That why, every expression consists of at least one operand and can have one or more operators. For example, in the C language x+5 is an expression, as is the character string "MONKEYS." From expression we can get instruction (See section 1.2.1). An instruction can build by a single expression or from many of it. Example, when we use looping we need to expression to compare each other.
In programming, an expression is any legal combination of operand (object) and operator that have a value. Each programming language and application has its own rules for what is legal and illegal. I suggest to see again section 1.6.
Expressions are often classified by the type of operand or object that they represent. For example:
  • §  Boolean expressions: Evaluate to either TRUE or FALSE
  • §  Integer expressions: Evaluate to whole numbers, like 3 or 100
  • §  Floating-point expressions: Evaluate to real numbers, like 3.141 or -0.005
  • §  String expressions: Evaluate to character strings


2.5              Variable

Every program language has a different meaning for variable. In Python a variable just a name for an object. We use an assignment operator to combine and object with variable. An object can have one or more than one name that associated with it. Example:
Pi = 3.14159
Phi = 3.14159
Those two expression is an example of naming floating object 3.14159 with variable Pi and Phi.
In Python, variable names can contain letter, digits & special character _. Python variable name are also case-sensitive. There are a small number of reserved keywords in python that have built-in meaning and cannot be used as variable names. Those word are usually have been used as command or statement. Example in Python 2.7 are and class, del, pass, print, while, etc. (Guttag, 2013)

2.6              Comment

Purpose of a comment is to make a program easy to read (by programmer). Comment will helps programmer to produce a well form program. Not to explain the language or the semantics but to explain the thinking behind the program or to explain the algorithm. So we suggest to assume the reader understand the language.




2.7              Branching program

The kind of computation we have been looking at this far are called straight-line program. They execute one statement after another in the order in which they appear, and stop when they run out of statements. These kind of programs aren't very interesting. In fact, they are downright boring. (Guttag, 2013)
There are three way to branching a program.

2.7.1                       Conditional (If …)

The simplest statement to branching a program is to use a conditional.  A conditional statement usually has three part:

Figure 2.1 - Conditional Branching Program
a.    a test, i.e., an expression that evaluates to eather true or false;
b.    a block of code that is executed if the test evaluates to True; and
c.    an optional block of code that is executed if the test evaluates to false.
Becarefull!!! In python indentation is a semantically meaningfull.

2.7.2                       Looping or iteration

A generic iteration mechanism is depict in figure .... Like a conditional statement, it begins with a test. If the test evaluate to true, the program execute the loop body once, and then goes back to reevaluate the test. this process repeat until the test evaluates to False, after which control passes the code following the iteration statement.

Figure 2.2 - Iteration Branching Program
There are two type of statement in iteration, that are:

2.7.2.1                Countable Looping (For …)

Executes a piece of script multiple times and abbreviates the code that manages the loop variable. (tutorialspoint.com) The number of repetition determined by the program or the user.  The loop "counts" the number of times the body will be executed.  This loop is a good choice when the number of repetitions is known, or can be supplied by the user. (mathbits.com)

2.7.2.2                Conditional Looping  (While …)

Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is TRUE. It tests the condition before executing the loop body. (tutorialspoint.com) If the "condition" is FALSE at the beginning of the loop, the loop is never executed.  The "condition" may be determined by the user at the keyboard.  The "condition" may be a numeric or an alphanumeric entry. (mathbits.com)  This is a good, when we focus on the “condition”, and we don’t care about the number of repetition.

2.7.3                       Steps Jumping

2.7.3.1                (Jump … / Go To…)

This is the simplest statement to jumping from one sequence of statement to another.

2.7.3.2                Function /  subroutine

We will discusses this in a chapter, later.

Bibliography


Command Definition. (2004, June 15). Retrieved August 27, 2014, from www.linfo.org: http://www.linfo.org/command.html
Expression. (n.d.). Retrieved 12 04, 2015, from www.webopedia.com: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/E/expression.html
Guttag, J. V. (2013). Introduction to Computation and Programming Using Python (spring 2013 ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
Mathbits.com. (n.d.). Which LOOP should I use???? Retrieved January 9, 2016, from http://mathbits.com: http://mathbits.com/MathBits/CompSci/looping/whichloop.htm
Tutorialspoint.com. (n.d.). Python Loops. Retrieved January 9, 2016, from http://www.tutorialspoint.com: http://www.tutorialspoint.com/python/python_loops.htm
Walrath, M. C. (1996). The Java Tutorial - Object-Oriented Programming for the Internet. Addison-Wesley Pub.

Walrath, M. C. (1996, August). What Is an Object? Retrieved December 2014, from http://journals.ecs.soton.ac.uk/: http://journals.ecs.soton.ac.uk/java/tutorial/java/objects/object.html

Kamis, 28 Mei 2015

Turunan (SMA XI)


Turunan

1.       Definisi
Archimedes (287-212), Kepler (1571-1630), Galileo (1564-1642), Newton (1642-1727) dan Leibniz (1646-1716).


Turunan fungsi f(x) adalah laju perubahan fungsi bila saat nilai domainnya mendekati 0.




2.       Notasi


3.       Turunan Fungsi Aljabar
a)      Turunan fungsi konstan y = f(x) = c




b)      Turunan fungsi f(x) = xn

 

 

 


c)       Turunan fungsi y=g(x)±h(x) = u±v




d)      Turunan fungsi y=g(x)·h(x) = u·v




e)      Turunan fungsi y=g(x)/h(x) = u/v





Atau

4.       Turunan Fungsi Trigonometri
a.       Turunan fungsi y = sin x

 




 




 




b.      Turunan fungsi y = cos x

 




 


 





c.       Turunan fungsi fungsi trigonometri lain
Ingat:
 



 







5.       Turunan Fungsi Komposisi f(x) = (g o h)(x)






 



Atau jika kita menggunakan notasi Leibniz dan aturan rantai sebagai berikut:
 











6.       Turunan Fungsi Logaritma
a.       Untuk fungsi f(x) = alog x
 









Misalkan                , maka saat              , nilai            . Dengan ini kita dapat merubah bentuk di atas menjadi:
 













                                                                                                                                                 

 









b.      Untuk fungsi  f(x) = ln x
 








7.       Turunan Fungsi Eksponensial f(x) = eg(x)
 








Turunkan kedua ruas dengan menggunakan turunan logaritma dan dalil rantai sehingga menjadi:
 








8.       Turunan Fungsi Implisit f(x,y)=c
Fungsi implisit f(x,y)=c, dimana y juga merupakan fungsi dari x.

Contoh:

Tentukan y’ dari fungsi:
 



Caranya dengan menurunkan kedua ruas terhadap x, seperti berikut:
 

















9.       Turunan Jenis Lebih Tinggi
 











10.   Aplikasi Turunan
a.       Fungsi naik – Fungsi turun
Untuk y=f(x), jika:

f’(x) < 0 atau f’(x) bernilai negatif, maka kurva y=f(x) akan turun.
f’(x) = 0, maka kurva y=f(x) berada pada keadaan stasioner.
f’(x) > 0 atau f’(x) bernilai positif, maka kurva y=f(x) akan naik.

b.      Nilai stationer (kritis) dari fungsi
Seperti yang dijelaskan pada bagian sebelumnya, nilai stasioner dari sebuah fungsi akan diperoleh saat turunan pertama dari fungsi tersebut sama dengan nol. Perhatikan grafik berikut
Misalkan:
f’(a)=f’(b)=f’(c)=0
maka nilai stationer dari fungsi tersebut adalah f(a), f(b), dan f(c).

c.       Nilai maksimum – Nilai minimum

Masih berdasarkan gambar diatas, dengan menggunakan analisis nilai turunan pertama:
-          Pada titik A, f’(x) berubah dari positif menjadi negatif, maka f(a) disebut nilai balik maksimum
-          Pada titik B, f’(x) berubah dari negatif-nol-negatif, maka f(b) disebut nilai belok horisontal
-          Pada titik C, f’(x) berubah dari negatif menjadi positif, maka f(c) disebut nilai balik minimum
Selain menggunakan analisis turunan pertama, kita juga dapat menggunakan turunan kedua untuk menentukan nilai balik/belok, seperti berikut:
i.                     f(a) adalah nilai balik maksimum jika f’(a)=0 dan f’’(a)<0 a="" bernilai="" f="" negatif="" p="">
ii.                   f(c) adalah nilai balik minimum jika f’(c)=0 dan f’’(c)>0 (f’’(c) bernilai positif)

d.      Menggambar bentuk grafik fungsi
Langkah 1. Buat analisa awal sebagai berikut;
1.  Periksa daerah asal (domain)  dan daerah hasil (range) fungsi untuk melihat apakah ada daerah di bidang yang di kecualikan
2.  Cari perpotongan dengan sumbu-sumbu kordinat.
3.  Gunakan turunan pertama untuk mencari titik-titik stationer (kritis) dan untuk mengetahui tempat-tempat grafik naik , turun, maupun berbalik secara horizontal.
4.  Gunakan turunan kedua untuk mengetahui tempat-tempat grafik cekung ke atas dan cekung ke bawah dan untuk melokasikan ttik-titik balik.
Langkah 2 Gambarkan beberapa titik ( termasuk semua titik kritis dan titik balik )
Langkah 3 Sketsa grafik

e.      Menentukan Kecepatan dan percepatan
Kecepatan merupakan turunan pertama dari sebuah fungsi terhadap waktu. à v = f’(t)
Percepatan merupakan turunan kedua dari sebuah fungsi terhadap waktu, atau merupakan turunan pertama dari fungsi kecepatan terhadap waktu. à a = f’’(t) = v’(t)

f.        Menentukan elastisitas permintaan
Elastisitas permintaaan(eD) adalah perubahan relatif permintaan barang (b%) terhadap perubahan relatif harga barang (a%).  à  eD = ( b%/a%)
Secara matematis:
Jika fungsi permintaan adalah QDemand=f(Price), maka
 






Hal ini berlaku juga untuk elastisitas penawaran (eS) dan elastisitas produksi (eP).

eP = Elastisitas Produksi
p  = output
x  = input
 






g.       Analisis marginal

Dalam ilmu ekonomi, istilah marginal diartikan sebagai laju perubahan atau turunan pertama dari sebuah fungsi.
Misalkan:
C(x) = total biaya untuk memproduksi x unit
R(x) = pendapatan total dari penjualan x unit
P(x) = Keuntungan total yang diperoleh dari penjualan x unit produk

Dari keterangan tersebut, maka dapat dihubungkan:

P(x) = R(x) – C(x)

Sehingga:

P’(x) = R’(x) – C’(x)

C’(x) = disebut biaya marginal
R’(x) = disebut penerimaan marginal
P’(x) = disebut keuntungan marginal


h.      Aturan L’hopital
Jika:
                                                 atau
 


                                        memiliki nilai

dan
 



maka
 





Penurunan: